- Study of mountains: Orology
- Organized hills → Mountain ranges
- Geosyncline Theory
- Thermal Contraction Theory – Jeffreys
- Harry Hess: seafloor spreading, a major contribution to plate tectonics (not its sole originator)
- Himalaya: India–Eurasia collision after closure of the Tethys Ocean; Kober belongs to a historical geosynclinal model.
⚡ Quick Recall
India–Eurasia convergence/collision after Tethys closure shortened, folded, thrust and uplifted crust and former Tethyan sediments.
Fold Mountains
- Himalayas (India)
- Alps (Europe)
- Rockies (N. America)
- Andes (South America): world’s longest continental/on-land mountain range
Block Mountains
- Vosges (France)
- Black Forest (Germany)
- Satpura (India)
Volcanic Mountains
- Mauna Loa (Hawaii Islands)
- Loihi (Hawaii)
- Popa (Myanmar)
- Mount Fuji (Japan)
- Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania)
Residual Mountains
- Appalachian (N. America)
- Aravalli: India’s oldest mountain chain and one of the world’s oldest fold-mountain systems
⚠ Exam Trap
Andes: longest continental/on-land mountain range;
Aravalli: India’s oldest mountain chain and one of the world’s oldest fold systems.
| Mountain Range | Location |
|---|
| Great Dividing Range | Eastern Australia |
| Ural Mountains / Caucasus | Russia (divides Asia & Europe) |
| Atlas / Drakensberg | Africa |
| Apennines | Italy |
| Pyrenees | France-Spain Border |
| Scandinavian Range | Europe – Norway, Finland, Sweden |
⚡ Quick Recall
Ural Mountains form the conventional boundary between
Europe and Asia.
| Peak / Height | Location | Key Fact |
|---|
| Mount Everest (8,848.86 m) | Nepal-Tibet Border | Highest peak in world • Sagarmatha (Nepal) / Chomolungma (Tibet/China) |
| K-2 / Godwin-Austen (8611 m) | Pakistan (PoK)-China Border | Second highest peak in world |
| Kangchenjunga (8586 m) | India-Nepal Border | Third highest |
| Lhotse (8516 m) | Nepal-Tibet Border | Fourth highest |
| Makalu (8485 m) | Nepal-Tibet Border | Fifth highest |
| Dhaulagiri (8167 m) | Nepal | Seventh highest |
⚡ Quick Recall
Kangchenjunga is the only Top-5 peak located on the
India-Nepal border — and is India's highest peak.
| Type of Plateau | Examples |
|---|
| Intermontane Plateau | Tibetan Plateau (highest/largest; average ~4,500–4,600 m), Pamir, Peru–Bolivia Altiplano, Anatolian and Mexican plateaus |
| Continental Plateau | Brazilian Plateau, Arabian Plateau, Southern India Plateau, South Africa Plateau |
| Different Origins / Surface Forms | Patagonia: piedmont/step plateau; Malwa: lava/volcanic plateau; Shillong: uplifted and dissected plateau |
| Dome-shaped Plateau | Chota Nagpur Plateau (India), Ozark Plateau (USA) |
| Rejuvenated Plateau | Missouri Plateau (America), Ranchi Plateau (India) |
| Arid / Desert Plateau | Potwar (Pakistan): semi-arid, dissected; Iranian Plateau: major arid highland |
| River-Dissected Plateau (descriptive label) | Shan Plateau (Myanmar), Cherrapunji Plateau of Meghalaya |
| Loess Plateau | Loess Plateau (China) |
| Ice-Covered High Interiors | Antarctic Plateau and Greenland Ice Sheet interior; Greenland has the world’s second-largest ice sheet, not second-largest plateau. |
⚠ Exam Trap
Tibetan Plateau: commonly described as both highest and largest plateau; average elevation
~4,500–4,600 m. Polar ice-sheet interiors are a different context.
- Himalaya–Karakoram–Tibetan highlands: major Asian drainage divides and river headwaters
- Highest peak of Africa – Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m), Tanzania
- Pidurutalagala – Highest peak of Sri Lanka
- World's longest mountain range on land – Andes (S. America)
- Aravalli: India’s oldest mountain chain; one of the world’s oldest fold-mountain systems
⚡ Quick Recall
Mount Kilimanjaro = Highest peak of Africa (5895 m) and also a Volcanic Mountain — combine both facts when revising.